(Last Updated On: March 24, 2023)
Control and Coordination : Control and coordination are important aspects of life science, as they are responsible for the proper functioning of various biological systems in living organisms. Control refers to the ability of an organism to regulate its physiological processes, while coordination involves the integration of different systems to achieve a common goal.

The nervous system and the endocrine system are the two main systems responsible for control and coordination in living organisms. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, and is responsible for receiving and transmitting information throughout the body. It controls voluntary and involuntary actions, and also regulates the body’s response to external stimuli.

The endocrine system consists of various glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which travel to target organs and regulate their functions. Hormones are chemical messengers that play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating growth, development, and reproduction.

In addition to the nervous and endocrine systems, there are other systems that contribute to control and coordination in living organisms. These include the muscular system, which enables movement and locomotion, and the immune system, which protects the body from infections and diseases.

Overall, control and coordination are essential for the proper functioning of living organisms. They allow organisms to respond to changes in their environment and maintain internal stability, which is critical for their survival and well-being.

ANIMALS – NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system of animals can be broadly divided into two categories: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS comprises the nerves that extend throughout the body.

The neurons are the basic units of the nervous system, and they communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals. The nervous system is also composed of other cells, such as glial cells, that provide support and nourishment to neurons.

The nervous system of animals performs various functions, such as sensory input, integration, and motor output. Sensory input involves the detection of stimuli from the environment, such as light, sound, or temperature, which are then transmitted to the CNS for processing.

Integration involves the processing of sensory information by the CNS, which then produces an appropriate response. Motor output involves the transmission of nerve impulses from the CNS to the muscles or glands, resulting in a specific action.

The nervous system of animals also plays a critical role in various physiological processes, such as the regulation of the heart rate, breathing rate, and digestion. It also enables animals to engage in complex behaviors, such as learning, memory, and decision-making.

Overall, the nervous system is an essential component of animal biology, enabling animals to interact with their environment and maintain homeostasis.

a) Structure of neuron, (b) Neuromuscular junction

(a) Structure of neuron:

A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. It is composed of three main parts: the cell body, dendrites, and axon.

The cell body, also called the soma, contains the nucleus and other organelles that are responsible for the metabolic functions of the neuron.

The dendrites are short, branching structures that receive input from other neurons or sensory receptors. They are covered with synapses, which are specialized structures that allow neurons to communicate with each other.

The axon is a long, thin, and cylindrical structure that transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body to other neurons or effector organs, such as muscles or glands. The axon is covered by the myelin sheath, which insulates and protects the axon and facilitates the transmission of nerve impulses.

At the end of the axon, there are specialized structures called axon terminals or synaptic knobs, which form synapses with other neurons or effector organs.

(b) Neuromuscular junction:

The neuromuscular junction is a specialized synapse that connects a motor neuron with a muscle fiber. It is responsible for transmitting nerve impulses from the motor neuron to the muscle fiber, leading to muscle contraction.

The neuromuscular junction consists of three main components: the motor neuron terminal, the synaptic cleft, and the muscle fiber membrane.

The motor neuron terminal contains vesicles that store neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons and muscles. When a nerve impulse reaches the motor neuron terminal, the vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

The synaptic cleft is a narrow gap between the motor neuron terminal and the muscle fiber membrane. The neurotransmitters released by the motor neuron terminal bind to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane, leading to the generation of a muscle action potential.

The muscle action potential triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which leads to muscle contraction. The contraction is terminated when the neurotransmitter is degraded or taken back up by the motor neuron terminal.

Overall, the neuromuscular junction is an essential component of muscle function, enabling the nervous system to control and coordinate movement and other muscular activities.

What happens in Reflex Actions?

In a reflex action, the stimulus is detected by sensory receptors, such as pain receptors or stretch receptors, which are located in the skin, muscles, or other tissues. The sensory receptors send nerve impulses to the spinal cord, where they synapse with motor neurons that innervate the muscles or glands involved in the reflex.

The motor neurons then transmit nerve impulses back to the effector organs, causing a rapid and automatic response. The response may involve contraction of muscles, secretion of glands, or other physiological processes, depending on the nature of the stimulus and the reflex involved.

For example, the withdrawal reflex is a protective reflex that occurs when a person touches a hot object. The heat stimulus is detected by pain receptors in the skin, which send nerve impulses to the spinal cord. The nerve impulses are then transmitted to motor neurons, which innervate the muscles involved in withdrawal of the hand from the hot object. The reflex action occurs without conscious thought or decision-making and helps to protect the body from further injury.

Overall, reflex actions are important for survival and protection of the body. They allow rapid and automatic responses to potentially harmful stimuli, without the need for conscious thought or decision-making.

Human Brain

The brain is divided into different regions, each of which is responsible for specific functions. The major regions of the brain include the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

The cerebrum is the largest and most complex region of the brain, consisting of two hemispheres connected by a bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is responsible for higher brain functions, such as thinking, perception, and voluntary movements. It is also involved in the processing and interpretation of sensory information.

The cerebellum is located below the cerebrum and is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, maintaining balance and posture, and regulating muscle tone.

The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and is responsible for controlling many vital functions, such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.

The brain is composed of billions of neurons, which communicate with each other through specialized structures called synapses. The neurons are supported by other cells, such as glial cells, which provide structural support and nourishment to the neurons.

The brain also contains several specialized structures, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and basal ganglia, which are involved in learning, memory, emotion, and motor control.

The human brain is an incredibly complex and adaptable organ, capable of changing and adapting throughout a person’s lifetime. This property, known as neuroplasticity, enables the brain to reorganize itself in response to new experiences, learning, and recovery from injury or disease.

The human brain is a remarkable and essential organ that plays a critical role in all aspects of human life and functioning.

How are these Tissues protected?

  1. Epithelial tissue: Epithelial tissue is found on the surfaces of the body, including the skin and lining of internal organs. It is protected by several mechanisms, including the production of mucus, which acts as a barrier against harmful substances, and the shedding of damaged or dead cells, which helps to maintain the integrity of the tissue.
  2. Connective tissue: Connective tissue is found throughout the body, providing support and structure to other tissues and organs. It is protected by several mechanisms, including the production of extracellular matrix, which provides structural support and can act as a barrier against harmful substances, and the presence of specialized cells, such as macrophages, which can engulf and remove foreign particles.
  3. Muscle tissue: Muscle tissue is responsible for movement and is protected by several mechanisms, including the presence of connective tissue sheaths, which provide structural support and help to prevent damage during movement, and the production of lactic acid during strenuous exercise, which can help to buffer against the buildup of harmful substances.
  4. Nervous tissue: Nervous tissue is responsible for transmitting signals throughout the body and is protected by several mechanisms, including the production of myelin sheaths, which insulate and protect nerve fibers, and the presence of specialized cells, such as astrocytes, which provide structural support and help to maintain the health of nerve cells.

In addition to these mechanisms, many tissues in the body are also protected by the immune system, which can identify and eliminate harmful substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins, that may come into contact with the tissues.

How does the Nervous Tissue cause Action?

Nervous tissue is responsible for transmitting and processing information in the body, and it can cause action through a process called neural signaling.

Neural signaling involves the following steps:

  1. Sensory input: Sensory receptors detect stimuli from the environment or within the body, such as light, sound, touch, or changes in temperature or pH.
  2. Transmission of nerve impulses: Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses, or electrical signals, from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord.
  3. Integration and processing of information: Interneurons in the CNS process the sensory information and integrate it with other information from past experiences and memories.
  4. Motor output: Motor neurons in the CNS transmit nerve impulses to effectors, such as muscles or glands, causing them to perform a specific action, such as contracting or secreting.

The process of neural signaling allows the nervous tissue to coordinate and control various physiological processes, such as movement, sensation, perception, and thought.

For example, if a person touches a hot object, the sensory receptors in the skin detect the heat stimulus and transmit nerve impulses to the spinal cord. The interneurons in the spinal cord process the information and send nerve impulses to the motor neurons, causing the muscles in the arm to contract and pull the hand away from the hot object. This reflex action occurs rapidly and automatically, without conscious thought or decision-making.

The nervous tissue can cause action by transmitting and processing information through neural signaling, allowing the body to respond to changes in the environment or within the body.

1. What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?

  1. Involuntary vs voluntary: Reflex actions are involuntary movements that occur automatically, without conscious thought or decision-making. Walking, on the other hand, is a voluntary movement that requires conscious thought and decision-making.
  2. Speed: Reflex actions are generally much faster than walking. They occur in response to a specific stimulus and are designed to protect the body from harm. Walking, on the other hand, is a slower and more deliberate movement that is typically used for locomotion.
  3. Complexity: Reflex actions are typically simple and stereotyped, involving only a few muscle groups and a limited range of motion. Walking, on the other hand, is a more complex movement that requires coordination between multiple muscle groups and joints.
  4. Control: Reflex actions are controlled by the spinal cord and occur automatically without input from the brain. Walking, on the other hand, is controlled by both the spinal cord and the brain, which work together to coordinate the movement.

Reflex actions and walking are both important types of movement controlled by the nervous system, but they differ in their speed, complexity, and control mechanisms.

2. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

The synapse is the junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a target cell, such as a muscle or gland cell. At the synapse, information is transmitted from one neuron to the next, or from a neuron to a target cell, through a process called synaptic transmission. Here are the steps involved in synaptic transmission:

  1. Action potential: When an action potential reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane, allowing calcium ions to enter the cell.
  2. Neurotransmitter release: The increase in calcium ion concentration triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft, which is the small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
  3. Neurotransmitter binding: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron or target cell, causing a change in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell.
  4. Postsynaptic potential: The change in membrane potential can be either depolarizing, causing the postsynaptic cell to become more likely to generate an action potential, or hyperpolarizing, causing the postsynaptic cell to become less likely to generate an action potential.
  5. Neurotransmitter clearance: The neurotransmitter molecules in the synaptic cleft are eventually cleared through a process of reuptake by the presynaptic neuron or degradation by enzymes in the synaptic cleft.

Synaptic transmission is a complex and highly regulated process that allows information to be transmitted between neurons and from neurons to target cells. It plays a critical role in many physiological processes, including sensory perception, movement, and cognition.

3. Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?

The part of the brain that maintains posture and equilibrium of the body is the cerebellum.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, beneath the cerebral hemispheres. It receives input from sensory systems, such as the vestibular system in the inner ear, as well as from other parts of the brain, such as the motor cortex. It uses this input to coordinate and fine-tune movements, including those involved in maintaining posture and balance.

The cerebellum is also involved in motor learning and motor memory. It helps to adjust movements based on past experience and to store information about how to perform certain movements. Injuries or disorders of the cerebellum can lead to problems with balance, coordination, and posture, such as ataxia, tremors, and difficulty with fine motor tasks.

In summary, the cerebellum is the part of the brain that plays a crucial role in maintaining posture and equilibrium, as well as in coordinating and fine-tuning movements.

4. How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick)?

The detection of the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick) is made possible through the sense of smell, which is also known as the olfactory system. Here is a brief overview of how the olfactory system detects smells:

  1. Odorants: When an agarbatti is burned, it releases volatile molecules called odorants into the air. These odorants have specific chemical structures that allow them to be detected by the olfactory system.
  2. Olfactory receptors: The olfactory system contains specialized receptor cells in the nose that are sensitive to these odorants. These receptor cells have hair-like projections called cilia, which contain specific olfactory receptors that bind to specific odorants.
  3. Neural signals: When an odorant binds to an olfactory receptor, it triggers a cascade of chemical reactions that generate an electrical signal in the receptor cell. These signals are then transmitted along the olfactory nerve to the brain.
  4. Olfactory bulb: The olfactory nerve connects to the olfactory bulb, which is located at the base of the brain. The olfactory bulb contains specialized neurons that process the information from the olfactory nerve and send signals to other parts of the brain for further processing.
  5. Perception: Finally, the brain processes the information from the olfactory bulb to create a perception of the smell. Different odorants activate different combinations of olfactory receptors, which can create a wide range of smells.

In summary, the olfactory system allows us to detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick) by detecting specific odorants in the air, transmitting signals to the brain, and creating a perception of the smell.

5. What is the role of the brain in reflex action?

Reflex actions are rapid and automatic responses to stimuli that do not require conscious thought or decision-making. The role of the brain in reflex actions is to receive sensory input from the body and coordinate an appropriate response, but without conscious awareness or control.

Here’s a general overview of how reflex actions work in the brain:

  1. Sensory input: The sensory receptors in the body detect a stimulus, such as a sudden touch or pain, and send signals to the spinal cord.
  2. Spinal cord processing: The sensory signals are processed in the spinal cord, where reflex arcs are located. Reflex arcs are neural pathways that allow for rapid, automatic responses to specific stimuli.
  3. Motor output: The processed signals then trigger a motor output that generates a reflex action, such as a muscle contraction or withdrawal of a limb from a harmful stimulus.
  4. Brain involvement: While the spinal cord is responsible for generating the reflex action, the brain also plays a role in reflex actions. The brain receives information about the reflex action from the spinal cord and can modulate the reflex response based on the overall state of the body and other sensory inputs.

In summary, the role of the brain in reflex actions is to receive information from the spinal cord and modulate the reflex response as needed, but the actual generation of the reflex action is mainly controlled by the spinal cord.

COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Plants are able to respond to various external and internal stimuli in order to coordinate their growth and development, as well as to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The coordination in plants is achieved through several mechanisms, including:

  1. Hormonal signaling: Plants produce and respond to various hormones, such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins, which are involved in regulating growth and development, as well as in responses to environmental stimuli.
  2. Phototropism: Phototropism is the directional growth response of plants to light. The hormone auxin plays a key role in this process by accumulating on the shaded side of a plant, causing that side to elongate and bend towards the light source.
  3. Gravitropism: Gravitropism is the directional growth response of plants to gravity. The hormone auxin is also involved in this process by accumulating on the lower side of a plant, causing that side to elongate and bend downwards.
  4. Thigmotropism: Thigmotropism is the directional growth response of plants to touch or mechanical stimulation. This response can help plants to climb, support themselves, or avoid damage from wind or other environmental factors.
  5. Circadian rhythms: Plants have internal biological clocks that regulate various physiological and behavioral processes, such as flowering, photosynthesis, and nutrient uptake, based on the time of day and other environmental cues.

In summary, the coordination in plants is achieved through various mechanisms, including hormonal signaling, phototropism, gravitropism, thigmotropism, and circadian rhythms, which allow plants to respond to environmental stimuli and regulate their growth and development accordingly.

Immediate Response to Stimulus

Immediate responses to stimuli are rapid and automatic responses that occur within a fraction of a second after a stimulus is detected. In animals, immediate responses to stimuli are often controlled by the nervous system and involve the following mechanisms:

  1. Reflex actions: Reflex actions are rapid, involuntary responses to a specific stimulus. They are controlled by reflex arcs, which are neural pathways that allow sensory information to travel to the spinal cord or brainstem, where it is processed and an appropriate motor response is generated. Examples of reflex actions include the withdrawal reflex, knee-jerk reflex, and pupillary reflex.
  2. Fight or flight response: The fight or flight response is a physiological response that occurs in response to a perceived threat or danger. It is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, which activates various physiological changes, such as increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, and dilated pupils, in order to prepare the body for action.
  3. Endocrine responses: Endocrine responses involve the release of hormones in response to a stimulus. Hormones can act quickly and have a wide range of effects on various organs and tissues in the body. For example, the release of adrenaline in response to a stressful situation can increase heart rate and blood pressure, as well as stimulate the breakdown of glycogen in the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream.

Immediate responses to stimuli in animals are controlled by the nervous system and involve mechanisms such as reflex actions, the fight or flight response, and endocrine responses, which allow for rapid and appropriate responses to various stimuli.

Movement Due to Growth

Plants exhibit various types of movement, including movement due to growth. The movement due to growth is a type of movement in which the direction of growth of the plant part is controlled by the direction of the external stimulus, such as light or gravity.

The following are some examples of movement due to growth in plants:

  1. Phototropism: Phototropism is the movement of plant parts in response to light. When a plant is exposed to unidirectional light, such as sunlight, the plant part facing the light source grows faster than the part facing away from the light source. This causes the plant to bend or curve towards the light source.
  2. Gravitropism: Gravitropism is the movement of plant parts in response to gravity. The roots of a plant grow downwards towards the direction of gravity, while the stem grows upwards against the direction of gravity. This allows the plant to maintain an upright position.
  3. Thigmotropism: Thigmotropism is the movement of plant parts in response to touch or mechanical stimulation. For example, tendrils of climbing plants such as grapevines and peas will curl around a support when they touch it, allowing the plant to climb.
  4. Hydrotropism: Hydrotropism is the movement of plant roots in response to water. When a plant is in a dry environment, the roots will grow towards the direction of water.

In summary, movement due to growth in plants is a type of movement in which the direction of growth of a plant part is controlled by external stimuli, such as light, gravity, touch, and water.

What are plant hormones?

Plant hormones, also known as phytohormones, are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes in plants. These hormones are naturally occurring organic compounds that are produced in specific parts of the plant, such as the roots, leaves, and shoots, and are transported to other parts of the plant through the vascular system.

There are five major classes of plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. Each hormone has a unique function and plays a critical role in plant growth and development.

Auxins, for example, are responsible for regulating plant growth and development, including cell elongation, root development, and apical dominance. Gibberellins promote stem elongation, seed germination, and fruit development. Cytokinins promote cell division and delay senescence, while abscisic acid regulates seed dormancy and stomatal closure. Ethylene is involved in various plant growth and development processes, such as fruit ripening, leaf abscission, and senescence.

Plant hormones are essential for plant growth, development, and survival. Their proper regulation is necessary for plants to respond to various environmental cues, such as light, temperature, and water availability.

How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a shoot towards light?

The movement of leaves of the sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) and the movement of a shoot towards light are both examples of plant movements that are mediated by hormones, but they are different in their mechanism and purpose.

The movement of the leaves of the sensitive plant is known as thigmonasty, and it is a response to touch or mechanical stimulation. When the leaves are touched, the plant releases a hormone called abscisic acid, which causes the water channels in the cells of the pulvinus (a specialized joint at the base of the leaflet) to close, resulting in the movement of the leaflets towards each other. This movement is a defensive mechanism that helps to protect the plant from herbivores or other potential threats.

On the other hand, the movement of a shoot towards light is known as phototropism, and it is a response to light. When a shoot is exposed to light, the plant hormone auxin accumulates on the side of the shoot that is away from the light source. This hormone accumulation causes the cells on that side of the shoot to elongate, resulting in a bending of the shoot towards the light. This movement is a growth response that helps the plant to optimize its exposure to light for photosynthesis.

In summary, the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant is a response to touch, while the movement of a shoot towards light is a response to light. The former is a defensive mechanism, while the latter is a growth response that helps the plant to optimize its exposure to light for photosynthesis.

Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth

One example of a plant hormone that promotes growth is gibberellin. Gibberellins are a group of hormones that stimulate cell elongation, stem and leaf growth, and seed germination in plants. They are synthesized in the shoot and root tips of plants and are transported to other parts of the plant through the vascular system.

Gibberellins work by promoting cell division and elongation, which results in the elongation of plant cells and tissues. They also help to break seed dormancy and promote seed germination by stimulating the production of enzymes that break down stored nutrients in the seed.

Gibberellins are also involved in other growth and developmental processes in plants, such as flower and fruit development, leaf expansion, and stem growth. They are used in agriculture to increase crop yields, by promoting plant growth and development. However, excessive use of gibberellins can lead to unwanted growth, such as elongated stems or reduced fruit quality, so their use must be carefully managed.

How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?

Auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support by stimulating differential growth in the cells on the side of the tendril that is away from the support. This results in the tendril bending and growing towards the support, allowing the plant to climb and gain support.

When a tendril comes into contact with a support, auxins are transported from the shoot apex to the side of the tendril that is away from the support. This causes the cells on that side of the tendril to elongate more rapidly than the cells on the side of the tendril that is in contact with the support.

The differential growth in the cells on the side of the tendril away from the support causes the tendril to bend and grow towards the support. This bending is known as thigmotropism, a type of tropism where the growth of a plant is influenced by contact with a solid object.

Auxins also play a role in the development of the tendrils themselves, by promoting the elongation and differentiation of cells in the tendrils, which results in the formation of specialized cells that are involved in grasping onto the support.

Overall, the growth and movement of tendrils around supports is a complex process that is influenced by a variety of plant hormones, including auxins. By promoting differential growth in the cells of the tendril, auxins play a critical role in allowing the plant to climb and gain support, which is essential for the survival and growth of many plant species.

Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.

Here is an example experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism:

Materials:

  • Several bean seeds
  • Two clear plastic cups
  • Filtered water
  • Ruler
  • Marker

Procedure:

  1. Soak the bean seeds in filtered water for 24 hours.
  2. Fill both cups with filtered water up to 1 inch from the bottom.
  3. Place a seed on the surface of the water in each cup, making sure that they are at the same height.
  4. Using the marker, mark the initial position of the seed on the side of the cup.
  5. Cover one cup with a dark paper or fabric to create a dark environment for the seed, and leave the other cup uncovered to provide normal light exposure.
  6. Place both cups in a warm location, with a consistent temperature, and wait for 3-4 days.
  7. Check the seeds daily and observe their growth and movement towards the water.
  8. Using the ruler, measure the distance between the initial position of the seed and the current position of the root.
  9. Record your observations and measurements.

Results: After several days, you should observe that the seed in the uncovered cup grew a root towards the water source, while the seed in the covered cup did not show any significant root growth. The distance between the initial position of the seed and the current position of the root in the uncovered cup should be greater than in the covered cup.

Conclusion: This experiment demonstrates hydrotropism, which is the growth of the plant towards a water source. The seed in the uncovered cup was able to detect the presence of water and grew its root towards it, while the seed in the covered cup was not able to detect the water source and did not show significant root growth. This experiment shows how plants are able to sense and respond to environmental cues, such as the presence of water, through the use of specialized plant hormones and mechanisms of growth.

HORMONES IN ANIMALS

Hormones in animals are signaling molecules that are secreted by various endocrine glands and other specialized cells in the body. They are responsible for regulating various physiological processes, such as growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and response to stress and injury.

Some of the major hormones in animals include:

  1. Insulin – a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates the metabolism of glucose and other nutrients in the body.
  2. Estrogen and progesterone – female sex hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle and promote the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
  3. Testosterone – a male sex hormone that promotes the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and regulates sperm production.
  4. Thyroid hormones – produced by the thyroid gland, these hormones regulate metabolism, body temperature, and energy levels.
  5. Adrenaline and cortisol – hormones produced by the adrenal glands that regulate the body’s response to stress and injury.
  6. Growth hormone – produced by the pituitary gland, this hormone regulates growth and development, particularly during childhood and adolescence.
  7. Melatonin – produced by the pineal gland, this hormone regulates the sleep-wake cycle and is involved in seasonal rhythms.

These are just a few examples of the many hormones found in animals. Hormones can have a wide range of effects on the body, and disruptions in hormone levels can lead to various health problems and disorders.

Endocrine glands in human beings (a) male, (b) female

Endocrine glands are glands in the human body that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. Here are some of the major endocrine glands found in both males and females:
(a) Male:
  1. Testes – These produce testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and sperm production.
  2. Adrenal glands – These produce testosterone as well as other hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol, which regulate the body’s response to stress and injury.
  3. Pituitary gland – This gland produces several hormones, including growth hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which regulate growth, metabolism, and reproductive function.
(b) Female:
  1. Ovaries – These produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics.
  2. Adrenal glands – These produce estrogen and progesterone as well as other hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol.
  3. Pituitary gland – This gland produces several hormones, including LH and FSH, which regulate the menstrual cycle and ovulation, as well as growth hormone.

Other endocrine glands found in both males and females include the thyroid gland, which produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism and growth, and the pancreas, which produces insulin and other hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.

The endocrine system is complex and interconnected, with many glands working together to regulate various bodily functions. Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to various health problems and disorders, which can be treated through hormone replacement therapy or other medical interventions.

Some important hormones and their functions chart

Here’s a chart with some important hormones and their functions:

Hormone Gland of origin Function
Insulin Pancreas Regulates glucose metabolism by stimulating cells to take up glucose from the blood
Glucagon Pancreas Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose
Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroid gland Regulates metabolism, growth, and development of the body
Cortisol Adrenal gland Regulates the body’s response to stress and inflammation
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) Adrenal gland Regulate the body’s “fight or flight” response to stress
Growth hormone Pituitary gland Stimulates growth and development of the body
Melatonin Pineal gland Regulates sleep-wake cycles and seasonal rhythms
Estrogen and progesterone Ovaries Regulate menstrual cycle and promote development of female secondary sexual characteristics
Testosterone Testes Promotes development of male secondary sexual characteristics and regulates sperm production

Note that this is not an exhaustive list of all hormones or their functions, but rather a selection of some important ones. Additionally, hormones can have multiple functions and can interact with each other in complex ways.

1. How does chemical coordination take place in animals?
Chemical coordination in animals is achieved through the endocrine system, which consists of various glands and organs that produce hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream and carried to target cells or organs, where they bind to specific receptors and initiate a response.

The endocrine system works in conjunction with the nervous system to regulate bodily functions and maintain homeostasis. While the nervous system provides rapid, short-term responses to stimuli, the endocrine system provides slower, longer-lasting responses by modulating gene expression and metabolic processes.

The major glands and organs of the endocrine system include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Each gland produces specific hormones that regulate various bodily functions, such as metabolism, growth and development, stress response, and reproductive function.

Overall, chemical coordination in animals is a complex process that involves the production, secretion, and regulation of hormones throughout the body. Disruptions in the endocrine system can lead to a variety of health problems and disorders.

2. Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
The use of iodized salt is advisable because iodine is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in the production of thyroid hormones, which are necessary for proper growth and development, metabolism, and other bodily functions.

Iodine deficiency is a significant public health problem worldwide, particularly in areas where soil and food are deficient in iodine. Without enough iodine, the thyroid gland cannot produce sufficient amounts of thyroid hormones, leading to a condition called hypothyroidism. This can result in stunted growth, intellectual disabilities, goiter, and other health problems.

Iodized salt is salt that has been fortified with iodine to help prevent iodine deficiency. The World Health Organization recommends that all households use iodized salt to ensure that people consume enough iodine in their diets. Iodized salt is widely available and affordable, making it an easy way to improve public health and prevent iodine deficiency-related health problems.

3. How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?
When adrenaline (also called epinephrine) is secreted into the blood, it triggers the body’s “fight or flight” response, which prepares the body to respond to a perceived threat or stressor. The effects of adrenaline on the body include:
  1. Increased heart rate: Adrenaline stimulates the heart to beat faster and harder, increasing blood flow to the muscles and brain.
  2. Elevated blood pressure: Adrenaline causes blood vessels to constrict, which increases blood pressure and helps redirect blood flow to essential organs.
  3. Dilated airways: Adrenaline relaxes the muscles that surround the airways in the lungs, making it easier to breathe.
  4. Increased blood sugar: Adrenaline stimulates the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream, providing the body with a quick source of energy.
  5. Decreased digestion: Adrenaline decreases blood flow to the digestive system and suppresses digestive function, allowing the body to focus on responding to the perceived threat.
  6. Increased mental alertness: Adrenaline can enhance mental clarity and focus, making it easier to react quickly to a stressful situation.

The effects of adrenaline on the body are designed to help us respond quickly and effectively to a perceived threat or stressor. These responses can be beneficial in the short term, but prolonged exposure to adrenaline can have negative effects on the body over time.

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